Understanding Discriminative Stimulus (SD) in ABA: Insights from Two Decades of Progressive Practice

 

After twenty years in the field of Applied Behavior Analysis as the founder of Practical Solutions for Behavior and Instruction LLC (PSBI), I've witnessed firsthand how our understanding and application of ABA principles have evolved. Today, I want to share insights about one of the most fundamental concepts in ABA therapy: the discriminative stimulus (SD). This concept remains crucial in progressive ABA approaches, yet its application has become more nuanced, flexible, and person-centered over the years.

What is a Discriminative Stimulus (SD)?

At its core, a discriminative stimulus (SD) is a specific environmental cue or event that signals the availability of reinforcement for a particular behavior1. In simpler terms, an SD tells an individual that if they perform a certain action in response to this cue, they will likely receive a desired consequence or reward. This concept is foundational to ABA therapy and is based on the principles of operant conditioning, where behaviors are strengthened or weakened based on the consequences that follow them7.

Throughout my career, I've seen how discriminative stimuli serve as powerful tools for shaping behavior and fostering independence in individuals with diverse learning needs. The discriminative stimulus essentially comes before a behavioral reaction2, setting the occasion for the individual to engage in behaviors that have been previously reinforced5.

The Science Behind SDs

The concept of discriminative stimulus originated from operant conditioning theory and has evolved into a core element of Applied Behavior Analysis2. In my experience, I've observed that understanding the relationship between antecedents (the SD), behaviors, and consequences (the ABC model) provides invaluable insights into how and why behaviors occur, allowing for more effective and compassionate interventions.

When we identify an SD, we can better understand what triggers certain behaviors and develop strategies to either modify the SD or teach new responses to it2. This scientific approach allows us to be systematic while remaining responsive to each individual's unique needs.

Progressive Application of Discriminative Stimuli

In my two decades of practice, I've seen ABA evolve significantly from rigid methodologies to more adaptive, individualized approaches. Progressive ABA, as I implement it at PSBI, emphasizes flexibility, compassion, and holistic care while still utilizing evidence-based strategies like discriminative stimuli6.

Unlike reductionist approaches that might apply SDs in strict, protocol-driven ways, progressive ABA involves a structured yet flexible process that is contingent upon and responsive to each person's progress4. When using SDs in practice, we consider not just the immediate behavioral response but also the individual's preferences, emotional state, and long-term goals.

For example, rather than using the same rigid SDs for all clients learning a particular skill, we carefully select or develop stimuli that align with the individual's interests, learning style, and natural environment. This person-centered approach leads to more meaningful and sustainable behavior change6.

Types of Discriminative Stimuli in Practice

Through my years of educational experience, I've implemented various types of discriminative stimuli to help individuals learn and develop new skills. These typically fall into three main categories:

Verbal Instructions

Verbal instructions are perhaps the most commonly used SDs in both therapy/educational settings and everyday life. These include spoken cues or commands such as "Please sit down" or "Point to the red ball"1. In my experience, I've found that clear, concise verbal SDs as the individual's communication level are particularly effective when paired with consistent reinforcement. For example, when working with a child learning to request items, the verbal prompt "What do you want?" serves as an SD signaling that if they make an appropriate request, they'll likely receive the desired item. Over time, this SD helps establish functional communication skills. 

Visual Prompts

Visual stimuli serve as powerful SDs for many individuals, especially those with strong visual processing abilities. These can include pictures, objects, gestures, or written words that guide behavior13.

Labels or Signs for example: Labels on drawers or bins to prompt where items belong, or signs indicating what to do in certain areas (like a “Quiet” sign in the library). 

Also, providing visual access (communication temptations) to a preferred item can also serve as an SD signaling that if they make an appropriate request, they will likely receive the desired item. 

Environmental Cues

Environmental cues are changes in the setting that signal the appropriate time or place for particular behaviors1. These naturally occurring SDs are especially important in generalization - helping skills transfer from the therapy/learning setting to real-world environments.

For instance, a client who struggled with appropriate greetings. We used the natural SD of entering a room where people were present to cue greeting behavior. By practicing across multiple environments and reinforcing appropriate greetings, this natural SD became effective in triggering the desired social behavior.

Real-World Applications of SDs

One of the most rewarding aspects of my career has been witnessing how SDs in learning sessions translate to real-world independence. Discriminative stimuli are not just clinical tools; they're present throughout our daily lives1.

Traffic lights serve as SDs that signal when to stop or go. The ring of a phone indicates when to answer. A menu at a restaurant cues ordering behavior. By teaching individuals to recognize and respond to these natural SDs, we foster greater independence and community integration.

In my progressive approach to ABA, I focus on identifying and utilizing natural SDs that already exist in a person's environment rather than creating artificial ones whenever possible. When using artificial SD's it is critical to transition to more natural cues as quickly as possible. This approach supports more authentic learning and better generalization of skills.

Case Study: Building Communication Skills Through Natural SDs

I once worked with a five-year-old child who had limited verbal communication. Rather than creating structured, table-based activities with artificial SDs, we utilized natural opportunities throughout his day. For example, we arranged his favorite toys on high shelves (creating a natural SD of desired but inaccessible items) and waited for him to notice. When he showed interest, this became our teaching moment for requesting.

By pairing these natural SDs with reinforcement (receiving the requested item), he quickly learned that communication produced meaningful outcomes. This naturalistic approach led to more spontaneous communication across settings than traditional discrete trial methods alone would have achieved.

The Evolution of Using SDs in Progressive ABA

Traditional ABA often employed SDs in highly structured, therapist-directed sessions. However, in my progressive approach, I've witnessed the benefit of embedding SDs within natural routines and child-led activities6. This evolution aligns with research showing that ABA should be a structured yet flexible process that responds to individual progress4.

In progressive ABA, we recognize that SDs are most effective when they:

• Are meaningful to the individual

• Occur naturally in their environment when possible/moving as quickly as possible from 1:1 explicit teaching to more natural situations/settings

• Lead to functional, socially significant behaviors

• Are paired with reinforcement that truly motivates the person

This approach honors the science of behavior analysis while ensuring interventions are person-centered and socially valid.

Differentiating SD from Other Behavioral Concepts

Part of my work with families and professionals involves clarifying how discriminative stimuli differ from other behavioral concepts. For instance, a discriminative stimulus (SD) differs from stimulus generalization, in which an individual learns that a behavior can be performed across various settings2.

For example, when a child learns to request ice cream at a mall, stimulus generalization occurs when they apply this skill at a grocery store, restaurant, or home. In contrast, the SD is the specific environmental cue (seeing ice cream available) that triggers the requesting behavior2.

Understanding these distinctions helps caregivers and educators create more effective learning environments and better support skill development across settings.

Conclusion

After two decades in the field, I remain convinced that understanding discriminative stimuli is essential for effective, progressive ABA practice. SDs provide a framework for teaching new skills and shaping behaviors in ways that promote independence and quality of life.

The evolution toward more progressive ABA approaches has enhanced how we use discriminative stimuli - moving from rigid, protocol-driven applications to flexible, person-centered implementations that honor individual preferences, strengths, and needs. As practitioners, our goal should be to use SDs not as control mechanisms but as bridges to greater independence and self-determination.

At Practical Solutions for behavior and instruction LLC I remain committed to progressive ABA practices that incorporate discriminative stimuli within natural contexts, foster meaningful skills, and ultimately improve quality of life for the individuals served. By balancing scientific rigor with compassionate, individualized support, we can help each person reach their unique potential.

References
Brighter Strides ABA. (n.d.). Demystifying discriminative stimulus. https://www.brighterstridesaba.com

Chicago ABA Therapy. (n.d.). What is a discriminative stimulus (SD) in ABA therapy? https://chicagoabatherapy.com

Golden Steps ABA. (n.d.). Discriminative stimulus in ABA therapy: Examples & more. https://www.goldenstepsaba.com

Naturalistic intervention (NI): EBP brief packet. (n.d.). ERIC. https://eric.ed.gov

Progress in moving toward a more progressive approach to applied behavior analysis. (n.d.). ERIC. https://eric.ed.gov

Progressive ABA: Transforming Lives at Home

Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) has long been recognized as an effective intervention for children with special needs, particularly those on the autism spectrum. As the field has evolved, Progressive ABA  has emerged as a more dynamic and personalized approach that emphasizes flexibility, compassion, and collaboration. This article explores how home-based ABA can be effectively implemented to foster meaningful growth and development for children with special needs.

What Is Progressive ABA?

Progressive ABA builds upon traditional Applied Behavior Analysis principles by incorporating evidence-based strategies tailored to each child's unique strengths, preferences, and needs. Unlike rigid methodologies, it emphasizes natural environments, functional skills, and family involvement. Key features include:

• Individualized ABA planning: Interventions customized to align with the child's goals and developmental stage.

• Naturalistic teaching methods: Skills are taught in real-world contexts, such as the home or community, clinical settings and schools.

• Focus on autonomy: Encourages self-advocacy and independence.

• Family involvement in ABA: Parents are active participants in the process.

This approach not only improves skill acquisition but also promotes long-term generalization of behaviors across various settings.

Why Choose Home-Based ABA?

Home-based ABA offers unique benefits that make it an ideal choice for many families of children with special needs:

• Familiar environment: Conducting ABA at home provides comfort and consistency, reducing anxiety and enhancing focus- can be delivered by trained staff or implemented practically by parents and caregivers across the day.

• Skill generalization: By learning in their natural environment, children are better able to apply newly acquired skills to daily routines and interactions.

• Family involvement in ABA: Parents and siblings can actively participate, fostering a collaborative atmosphere that supports consistent reinforcement of positive behaviors.

How Does Progressive ABA Work at Home?

Progressive ABA implemented at home involves a partnership between therapists, parents, and caregivers. Here's how it unfolds:

Therapist Collaboration

A personalized treatment plan based on observations, parent interviews, and assessments. Implementation of the plan can occur during one-on-one ABA therapy sessions at the service location (clinic, school, home) and practically fostered at home by parents and caregivers.

Family Involvement in ABA

Parents are equipped with strategies to reinforce learning outside of therapy hours. By working closely with therapists, they gain tools to support their child's progress in communication, social interaction, and behavioral intervention for children.

Building Routines

Consistency is key. Families are encouraged to create structured schedules that integrate therapy sessions seamlessly and practically into daily life. This helps children anticipate activities and feel more secure in their routines while also working toward systematic development of skills.

Benefits of Progressive ABA for Children

Progressive ABA offers transformative benefits for children with special needs:

• Enhanced child communication skills: Helps children express their needs effectively.

• Improved social interaction: Fosters positive relationships with peers and family members.

• Greater independence: Teaches practical life skills like self-management and problem-solving to name a couple.

• Holistic development: Supports emotional regulation alongside academic readiness.

These outcomes not only improve the child's quality of life but also reduce familial stress, creating a more harmonious home environment.

Take the Next Step

If you're ready to explore how Progressive ABA can make a difference in your child's life, we invite you to schedule an appointment today. I specialize in creating personalized home-based ABA based plans that empower children to reach their full potential while supporting families every step of the way.

Let's work together to build a brighter future for your child through effective ABA for skill development—contact me now!

The Critical Need for Staff Training in ABA Within the School Setting

 

Students with autism, neurodiversity, or developmental disabilities spend a significant portion of their day in school. Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) is the gold standard of treatment, rooted in principles that align with how all individuals learn. Given this, it is essential that school staff receive proper training in progressive ABA to implement strategies effectively. Without adequate knowledge and skill, interventions often fail to address the root cause of behaviors, leading to ineffective or even harmful outcomes for students, staff, and the entire learning environment.

The Consequences of Inadequate ABA Training

Case Study 1: Misaligned Behavior Management

Consider a Student who frequently screams, disrupting both her own learning and that of her peers. In many schools, staff responses are often misaligned with the function of the behavior. Common approaches might include:

• Reprimands and consequences that inadvertently reinforce the screaming
• Escalations by staff that mirror the student's distress
• Lofty behavioral expectations that exceed the student’s current skill level

The result? Increased episodes of screaming, frustration for both staff, classmates, and Student resulting in a classroom environment that feels chaotic rather than structured.

How ABA Should Be Applied

To effectively intervene, we must ask two fundamental questions:

1. What function does the screaming serve? (Why is she screaming?)
2. What reinforcement can be used to teach a replacement behavior?

Through careful observation, it was determined that this student’s screaming serves two distinct functions:

1. A reaction to stress – She screams when classmates cry, lacking coping strategies for distressing sounds.
2. A form of protest – She screams when asked to do something she does not want to do.

Function-Based Intervention

For the stress-related screaming:

• Current response: She screams, moves away (other side of the classroom), plugs her ears, but does not find relief, escalating into more intense behaviors such as louder screams, crying, and throwing objects.
• ABA-based intervention: Teach her a functional replacement skill—requesting to leave the room. In sum, this skill must be introduced, practiced, and reinforced consistently. By honoring her request every time, staff reinforce the new, appropriate behavior, ensuring she feels supported. Over time, she can also be taught self-calming strategies and tolerance-building techniques. 

For the protest-related screaming:

• Current response: Screaming leads to either reinforcement (avoiding the task) or further escalation from staff, loss of other rewards/fun activities-punitive consequences that do not align with the behavior function.
• ABA-based intervention: Teaching alternative ways to protest appropriately (e.g., verbal request) while ensuring noncompliance does not result in avoidance of necessary tasks. Intervention that provides competing levels of reinforcement for the absent of protest and/or complying with directives associated with less desired tasks.

Effective behavior change requires analytical thinking, patience, strategic planning, and consistency—skills that school staff need but often lack due to insufficient training.  On some level it may seem like common sense and easy but when in fact the process is intricate, nuanced, and relies heavily on in the moment analysis and decision making. 

Case Study 2: Teaching Functional Communication and Structure

Another student does not understand school expectations and lacks a functional way to communicate. He primarily relies on self-initiated actions, such as physically guiding people to what he wants. His primary interest? The playground swings.

The Challenge

Without training in ABA, staff spend their day:

• Blocking his attempts to leave the classroom
• Redirecting him constantly
• Managing escalating crises when he becomes aggressive

This approach results in exhaustion for staff and frustration for the student, who has no structured or informed way of how and when he can access what he desires 

The ABA-Based Solution

A reinforcement-based system was developed:

1. A "work" area with 3 chairs (chair for interventionist, child, materials), a token board, and 3"x5" picture card of the swings was introduced, initially placed approximately 15 feet from the swings.
2. The student was given one token and physically guided to the chair, where he placed the final token on the board and exchanged a picture of the swing for immediate access.
3. Over an hour session, the chairs were systematically moved closer to the classroom, and the number of tokens required increased.
4. Within an hour of structured practice, the student independently transitioned, calmly placed his token on the board, sat calmly and engaged in work trials while earning 6 more tokens with no aggression or escape attempts.

This structured, reinforcement-based approach transformed a daily struggle into a functional learning opportunity. Overtime the number of tokens and trials will increase as well as the time lapse and number of trials between tokens will increase. 

Why Staff Training in ABA is Critical

The above cases illustrate how poorly implemented strategies create stress and chaos, while ABA-based interventions foster success and independence. Yet, despite its importance, ABA training is widely undervalued and often absent in teacher preparation programs, school training initiatives, and educational professional development.

Staff—including administrators, teachers, and paraprofessionals—must be equipped with the skills to:

• Identify the function of behaviors
• Apply reinforcement-based strategies
• Teach replacement skills effectively
• Implement interventions consistently

Without this training, students with autism and developmental disabilities are left without the tools they need to thrive, and school staff struggle with behaviors they feel ill-equipped to manage. A commitment to proper ABA training ensures a more effective, supportive, and successful learning environment for everyone. When staff are adequately trained and skilled most interventions can be developed within minutes and fine tuned within days versus the need for long, drawn out formal assessments. In some cases Functional Behavior Assessments are necessary but this can be the exception not the norm

Let’s prioritize training in ABA—not just for the sake of our students, but for the overall success of our schools.

Is ABA Good or Bad? It’s More Complicated Than That.

 Whether one believes in Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) or not is irrelevant. What we do know is that a strong body of research, spanning over 100 years, demonstrates measurable outcomes. ABA is based on learning theory and applies to all of us—not just individuals with autism or other developmental disabilities. It is embedded in how we teach children, coach athletes, and even learn to play musical instruments.

So why does ABA have such a bad reputation?

Like anything else, ABA is only as good as the people implementing it. Take water, for example. Water is neither good nor bad—it simply is. It helps plants grow, but too little or too much can be harmful, even deadly. ABA, in its purest form, is just a tool. Its impact—positive or negative—depends on how it is applied.

Yes, ABA can be bad. It can be punitive, rigid, and even harmful when used incorrectly. But it can also be incredible. When implemented with compassion, at a child’s learning level, and with a focus on individual strengths, ABA can help children express themselves, enjoy learning, engage with peers, and apply their skills in meaningful ways.

Unfortunately, I’ve seen both sides of ABA. I’ve witnessed programs so rigid that they trigger extreme escalations. I’ve seen undertrained staff cause more harm than good. I’ve watched chaotic, mismanaged programs create more disorder instead of progress.

We are at a critical juncture. More children are being diagnosed with autism. More students are entering school without basic readiness skills. And yet, instead of providing structured, evidence-based interventions, many programs are shifting toward putting children entirely in charge—eliminating staff authority, banning the word “no,” and relying solely on choice-based instruction. This often leads to more chaos, making elementary school transitions even harder.

The reality is that we have undertrained teachers, low-quality programs, and a culture of “not my job” attitudes. Checking boxes and hoping for the best is not the answer. We need a system designed to improve outcomes—one that offers meaningful education rather than just the bare minimum. Instead of merely accommodating those who start off behind, we should be providing opportunities to close the gap.

This is both simpler and more challenging than it seems. It requires time, planning, and input from highly qualified professionals. We need comprehensive training to develop skilled educators and interventionists.

Every preschool and elementary program should run like an In-N-Out Burger restaurant—precise, efficient, well-planned, and executed with care. Always mindful, considerate, and individualizing for the one in front of us.  If we can do that for a burger, why can’t we do it for a child?

This article is not affiliated with or endorsed by In-N-Out Burger. The reference is used purely as an analogy for operational efficiency.

You shouldn't have to squint: Progressive ABA in the school setting

 "You shouldn't have to squint to see progress" said a parent during the panel at the 2022 annual

Autism Partnership Foundation conference. This resonated with me deeply. I completely agree with this statement. As I reflect on my teaching style, beliefs, expectations, and implementation as a new teacher in 2006, I know my students made progress, but how much did I have to squint to see it? How much did the parents squint? At the time, the TEACCH method was the go-to for an autism-specific classroom. Every student had a visual/tangible schedule, and rotations consisted of language arts, math, art, sensory activities, independent work, discrete trials teaching (DTT), calendar/music, and play. This proved to be an easy system to set up and organize. The students fell in line and learned the routine of the days. Individual skill progress was relatively slow, but some progress, as required by law, was made. Did the progress generalize to any location outside of the structure of my classroom? Rarely.

My expectations and my own skill level were low. My mentor was highly trained and very effective in employing the current method. I was fortunate to learn from the best. If I reflect, I think I believed it was all that was possible-progress-limited to the highly structured setting. I, like many others may not know any better. A well-run classroom employing this model was definitely better for students than a lax class employing the same method. I continued on this path until I was introduced, through intensive training and guidance, to a flexible approach that was "obsessively systematic." This approach resulted in an increased rate of acquisition for my students and greater generalization of skills. Independence, not limited to one 15-minute center per day. While it appears very nice and delivered in a neat package, it is not realistic and does not serve any meaningful purpose. Post-training, independence was a skill that I worked on with my students every minute of every day. It was not simply through experiences of the day and exposure to new various stimuli. It was "obsessively systematic"--I was teaching independence skills. Goals written to independence vs goals written with prompting in place while adhering to some arbitrary prompting continuum.

What I learned is that there were components of this model that were valuable. I kept those and added what is now referred to as a progressive approach to ABA. Having done that, my students' rate of acquisition improved dramatically for most, and definitely for all. DTT was no longer a center either but rather an approach that was intensively implemented all day individually and within group instruction. I learned to appropriately prompt, which by the way, is widely misunderstood. I learned about bribery vs. reinforcement and how closely the two are related, but also how dangerous it can be to misunderstand. In the field, we often hear, "repeated practice." Another misunderstood component. Repeated practice occurs not only over time but more critically, in the moment and coupled with prompt fading. This is when learning occurs.

So, when this parent said, "You shouldn't have to squint to see progress," they meant it. Progress ought to be visible in the moment. In many cases, it is evident and not something we need to wait for. The rate of progress will undoubtedly vary across individuals, generalization will vary too, and each student's potential will vary as well, but progress will be made nevertheless and should be evident. Practice overtime is still necessary but the clarity of what and how to practice is revealed. During times when progress is not occurring, we know we can figure it out, make adjustments, and teach something more efficiently that can result in a meaningful outcome. I encourage teachers and ABA therapists to consider how much squinting you do, your staff has to do, and families must do to see meaningful progress.

Working with students who have delays requires that intervention be as efficient as possible. There is not time to waste. Quality of life depends on it. For additional information or training opportunities please reach out to Practical Solutions for behavior and instruction LLC. Mention this post for a no-cost training session. 

www.pracsol4u.com

practicalsolutions.jw@gmail.com

(949) 287-3683

Kickstart Success: Top tips for teachers preparing for the new year

Whether you are a new teacher or a veteran, the start of a new school year brings an extensive list of preparations. Here, I will share some top tips to kickstart success!

Before I dive into the list, I want to preface this information by acknowledging that the list may seem like common sense. So why would I take the time to share this information when most teachers are already considering many of these items?

When I was working on my bachelor's degree in sociology, one of my professors posed the question, "How is a candy bar violent?" At the time, he also stated, "None of you will understand this concept now. However, ten years down the road, you will recall this lesson and understand." He was right. We continued to listen as he asked questions and explained the violence that ensues to produce something so simplistic. A simple joy that we indulge in so effortlessly, without regard, and before you know it, the candy bar is gone, consumed and never considered again. There is so much in the making of a candy bar.

Once I understood the lesson, I began to view life in this way, paying close attention to what lies within. This holds true for a classroom. In making the simplicity of a room meaningful to students, there is a great deal that must go into its development. These tips embody so much more than the surface of a simple sentence.  At the close of this list, which is not exhaustive by the way, I will provide an example with some detail to consider.

1. Class List: Familiarize yourself with your class list as soon as possible. This will help you start putting faces to names and anticipate any specific needs.

2. IEPs and Individual Needs: Review any Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) and make note of individual needs. Planning ahead for accommodations and modifications is crucial for a smooth start.

3. Classroom Environment: Consider the overall environment of your classroom. Ensure it's welcoming, inclusive, and conducive to learning.

4. Physical Setup: Arrange your classroom in a way that supports your teaching style and meets the needs of your students. Think about seating arrangements, accessibility, and flow.

5. Rules, Policies, and Procedures: Establish clear rules, policies, and procedures from day one. Consistency and clarity in these areas set the tone for the year.

6. Plan for Week One: Have a detailed plan for the first week of school. This should include activities that help build a positive classroom community and introduce routines.

7. Due Dates: Make note of important due dates and timelines. This helps you stay organized and on track.

8. Welcome Letter: Prepare a welcome letter to parents and students. Introduce yourself, outline your expectations, and share key information about the upcoming year.

9. Parent Communication: Establish a system for regular communication with parents. Consistent updates can foster a strong partnership and keep parents informed.

10. Reinforcement Systems: Develop reinforcement systems to encourage positive behavior and academic effort. These can range from individual rewards to whole-class incentives.

Example: When considering procedures, individual needs, and the physical environment of the classroom, you will want to plan for the execution of each procedure. For instance, upon entering the classroom, students will need to put away their belongings in a designated area, free from cluttering walkways. You should establish a procedure for how students will file into the classroom, put their belongings away, and walk to their seats. Will they line up alphabetically, be called upon based on behavior, be organized by their ability to wait or behavior, or by who is best to stand near one another?

Having systems for all parts of your routine, especially while teaching your students the expectations, rules, policies, and procedures, is critical. How will students be arranged at their seats? Who will be grouped together? Are there any individual accommodations or modifications that must be considered? Starting out hyper-organized will set the tone of the classroom and limit any confusion. It will also highlight areas of need and allow for smoother transitions and necessary adjustments. As your class develops, the environment may become more relaxed without dismantling the structure. Remember to be flexible and make adjustments as needed. Recognize your own mistakes and adjust accordingly. Keep these strategies in mind when new students join the class. If you have any support staff, make sure they are considered in your plans and ensure they clearly understand their role in the class just as each student does. Be certain to hold yourself accountable for adhering to the policies and procedures. Deviating from this will likely cause confusion and frustration for your students.

With these tips in mind, you’ll be well on your way to a successful and rewarding school year! Feel free to email practicalsolutions.jw@gmail.com for questions or more examples of how you can adequately prepare for the upcoming year.